Ethnic differences in the relationship between greenspace deprivation and emotional, behavioural, and cognitive development in early-to-middle childhood
Children from minority ethnic groups may be more adversely affected by greenspace deprivation than White children
Minority ethnic groups often face barriers to accessing green space. Limited access is increasingly recognized as a risk factor for children’s emotional, behavioral, and cognitive difficulties. However, little research has examined whether individual factors such as ethnicity shape the link between greenspace exposure and developmental outcomes. To address this gap in the literature, it is important to investigate whether associations between greenspace and child development differ across ethnic groups and how they persist over time. This longitudinal study therefore examined ethnic differences in the relationships between neighborhood greenspace deprivation and children’s emotional and behavioral difficulties and cognitive ability across early to middle childhood (ages 3-11) in urban England.
The study used data from the Millennium Cohort Study (MCS), a national longitudinal birth cohort tracking study of 19,000 U.K. children born between 2000 and 2002. This study only utilized data collected from 5,569 children who lived in urban areas in England. Repeated assessments of children’s emotional and behavioral difficulties and cognitive abilities were conducted at ages three, five, seven, and 11. Emotional and behavioral difficulties were assessed using four subdomains of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), completed by parents, that examined emotional symptoms, conduct problems, hyperactivity/inattention symptoms, and peer problems. Cognitive ability was assessed using several measures of specific cognitive domains, which varied by age. At age three, the British Ability Scales (BAS) Naming Vocabulary test and the Bracken School Readiness Assessment were used to evaluate expressive language and preschool foundational understanding. At age five, children again completed the BAS Naming Vocabulary test, as well as the BAS Picture Similarities test to assess nonverbal reasoning, and the BAS Pattern Construction test to evaluate spatial skills. At age seven, the BAS Pattern Construction test was repeated, the BAS Word Reading test was used as a literacy assessment, and the National Foundation for Educational Research (NFER) numerical skills test was administered. Finally, at age 11, verbal reasoning was assessed using the BAS Verbal Similarities test, and spatial working memory was assessed with the CANTAB task cognitive assessment. Neighborhood greenspace deprivation was estimated based on the percentage of greenspace coverage at the ward (neighborhood) level, derived from two land use and land cover datasets. Children living in areas with less than 20% greenspace coverage were classified as greenspace-deprived. Statistical analyses were conducted to examine whether the relationships between greenspace deprivation and emotional, behavioral, and cognitive development differed based on children’s ethnicity. Ethnicity was categorized as White, Black, Indian, Pakistani/Bangladeshi, and Mixed/Other. Analysis adjusted for the influence of socioeconomic variables (maternal education, poverty level, and homeownership), family-level variables (maternal psychological distress, family structure, and fee-paying/private school status), and environmental variables (residential mobility, air pollution, and access to a home garden).
Results revealed that the greenspace-deprived group (less than 20% greenspace coverage) was comprised of higher proportions of children from minority ethnic backgrounds and lower proportions of children from a White background. Overall, children who lived in greenspace-deprived neighborhoods had lower cognitive ability scores and more emotional and behavioral difficulties compared to children living in non-deprived neighborhoods. The greenspace-deprived group also consisted of a higher proportion of families below the poverty line than the non-deprived group. Among White children, those living in greenspace-deprived areas had higher cognitive scores at age 7 and experienced a somewhat faster decline in conduct problems as they grew older compared to those in non-deprived neighborhoods. Notably, the relationship between greenspace deprivation and the assessed outcomes differed for some minority ethnic groups. For Indian children, greenspace deprivation was significantly linked to lower cognitive ability compared to greenspace-deprived White children. Indian children in greenspace-deprived areas also had significantly more conduct problems, hyperactivity/inattention, emotional symptoms, and peer problems than greenspace-deprived White children. Similarly, greenspace-deprived children in the Mixed/Other ethnicity group had significantly more hyperactivity/inattention problems than greenspace-deprived White children. Additionally, children’s developmental trajectories (from age three to 11) differed across ethnic groups in greenspace-deprived areas. Pakistani/Bangladeshi children in greenspace-deprived areas showed (1) significantly slower increases in cognitive ability and (2) significantly less steep declines in hyperactivity/inattention problems across age compared to greenspace-deprived White children. On the other hand, Mixed/Other children showed a significantly steeper decline in emotional symptoms over time in greenspace-deprived areas compared with White children.
Several important findings regarding the relationship between greenspace deprivation and ethnicity were identified. First, “minority ethnic families in urban England were disproportionately represented in areas of greenspace deprivation, reinforcing longstanding evidence of environmental disparities for minority ethnic individuals.” Second, the study found consistent evidence that children from minority ethnic groups—especially those with South Asian backgrounds—appeared to be more adversely affected by greenspace deprivation than White children, even after accounting for socioeconomic factors. These trends suggest that there may be a greenspace deprivation risk for some minority ethnic children, which may contribute to poorer emotional, behavioral, and cognitive developmental outcomes. The study also calls attention to the importance of separating ethnic groups, as there were differences revealed in the developmental outcomes of Indian and Pakistani/Bangladeshi children. Although further research is needed to replicate the findings in a larger sample, the study supports emerging evidence that the relationship between greenspace and child development may vary across ethnic groups. Policy interventions that provide equitable access to greenspace for children of all backgrounds may play an important role in reducing environmental inequalities and supporting healthy child development.
Citation
Cronshaw, G., Midouhas, E., Flouri, E., (2026). Ethnic differences in the relationship between greenspace deprivation and emotional, behavioural, and cognitive development in early-to-middle childhood. Health and Place, 98
